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                                                                         Carnes’s status as a parolee informs both sides of the
9,,,0RWLRQWR6XSSUHVVWKH$XGLR7DSHV                            balance. Parolees do not enjoy the full panoply of rights
                                                                     afforded the average citizen. See Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 494.
   &DUQHVDUJXHVWKDWWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWHUUHGLQGHQ\LQJKLV        They have previously been found guilty of a crime, which
PRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVDXGLRWDSHVVHL]HGDQGOLVWHQHGWRZLWKRXW        allows the state to impose "extensive restrictions" on their
DVHDUFKZDUUDQW:HKROGWKDWWKHJRYHUQPHQW¶VDFWLRQVZLWK        liberty. Id. at 483. Similarly, they know that at any time,
UHVSHFWWRVL[RIWKHWDSHVYLRODWHGWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW¶V          they may be sent back to jail for conduct that would be
SURKLELWLRQ RI XQUHDVRQDEOH VHDUFKHV DQG VHL]XUHV  7KH       perfectly lawful for the average citizen.
GLVWULFW FRXUW VKRXOG KDYH JUDQWHG &DUQHV¶ PRWLRQ LQ SDUW
VXSSUHVVLQJ WKH ILUVW VL[ WDSHV IRXQG DW  +DUPRQ RQ        In assessing the governmental interests side, many of the
-DQXDU\    7KH GLVWULFW FRXUW KRZHYHU SURSHUO\     concerns articulated in Knights with regard to probationers
GHQLHG &DUQHV¶V PRWLRQ ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH VHYHQWK WDSH     are applicable. However, a brief account of statistics specific
IRXQG PRQWKV ODWHU XQGHU .HOOXP¶V KRXVH  7KHUHIRUH ZH      to parolees is warranted. Parolees, like probationers, are far
5(9(56(WKHFRQYLFWLRQIRULOOHJDOLQWHUFHSWLRQRIDZLUH            more likely than the average citizen to commit a crime. In
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ                                                       1998, of 6,134,200 total persons under community
                                                                     supervision, jail, or prison, 696,385 were on parole. U.S.
                               $                                    Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Probation and
                                                                     Parole in the United States, 2001 NCJ 188208 (Washington
   6L[DXGLRWDSHVZHUHVHL]HGDW+DUPRQ6WUHHWGXULQJ          D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001), p. 3. In 1998, 42%
WKH VHDUFK LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZLQJ &DUQHV¶V DUUHVW RQ
-DQXDU\7KHSROLFHDQGSDUROHRIILFHUVHQWHUHGWKH        of parolees were returned to jail or prison and 9% absconded.
+DUPRQ6WUHHWUHVLGHQFHZLWKZDUUDQWVWRDUUHVW&DUQHVIRU           U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Probation
LOOHJDO HQWU\ DVVDXOW DQG EDWWHU\ DQG EHLQJ D SDUROH       and Parole in the United States, 1998 NCJ 178234
DEVFRQGHU  6HYHUDO PRQWKV ODWHU LQ WKH VSULQJ RI     (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1999), p. 7.
DQRWKHU JRYHUQPHQW DJHQW IRXQG D FDVVHWWH UHFRUGHU XQGHU      In 1999, 14.4% of all Federal Parolees had their parole
.HOOXP¶V WUDLOHUKRPH  .HOOXP KDG QR NQRZOHGJH RI WKH       terminated because of a new crime, 13.0% because of drug
UHFRUGHU¶VSUHVHQFH,QVLGHWKHUHFRUGHUZDVRQHDGGLWLRQDO         use, and 4.3% because of their fugitive status. U.S.
WDSH³WKHVHYHQWKWDSH´                                         Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Compendium of
                                                                     Federal Justice Statistics, 1999 NCJ 186179 (Washington,
  7KHVL[WDSHVVHL]HGRQ-DQXDU\ZHUHILUVWOLVWHQHG       D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001), p. 97.
WR WKUHH PRQWKV ODWHU DIWHU WKH KHDULQJ FRQFHUQLQJ WKH
VXVSHFWHG SDUROH YLRODWLRQV  7KH\ FRQWDLQHG SKRQH               Assessing Carnes’s privacy interests, we look to Carnes’s
FRQYHUVDWLRQV WDSHG IURP .HOOXP¶V KRPH  6RPH RI WKH         expectations when negotiating his parole agreement,
FRQYHUVDWLRQV ZHUH WKUHDWHQLQJ SKRQH FDOOV IURP &DUQHV        including Michigan Regulations applicable to him once he
2WKHUVZHUHRUGLQDU\SKRQHFDOOVWR.HOOXPIURPUHODWLYHV            accepted the terms of his parole. Comparing these facts with
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government cites United States v. Knights, 112 S. Ct. 587,             DQGIULHQGV&DUQHVILOHGDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVWKHVHWDSHV
593 (2001).                                                            DUJXLQJWKDWWKH\ZHUHVHL]HGDQGOLVWHQHGWRLQYLRODWLRQRI
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   Paying particular attention to the facts of Knights’s case,         FLUFXPVWDQFHV &DUQHV KDG D GLPLQLVKHG H[SHFWDWLRQ RI
the Court rejected the proposition that the government can             SULYDF\VXFKWKDWWKHXVXDO)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWUHTXLUHPHQWV
search all probationers and parolees without a warrant and             ZHUHQRWDSSOLFDEOH
probable cause. Rather, the Court described Knights’s own
probation search condition as a "salient circumstance"                                                   &
affecting the "EDODQFH RI >WKH@ FRQVLGHUDWLRQV >ZKLFK@
UHTXLUH>G@ QR PRUH WKDQ UHDVRQDEOH VXVSLFLRQ WR FRQGXFW D        )LUVW WKH JRYHUQPHQW¶V DUJXPHQW WKDW &DUQHV ODFNHG DQ
VHDUFKRIWKLVSUREDWLRQHU¶VKRXVH´,GDWHPSKDVLV         H[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\DVWRWKHWDSHVEHFDXVHWKHLUFRQWHQW
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 ³WKH OLEHUW\ RI D SDUROHH DOWKRXJK LQGHWHUPLQDWH      EHWZHHQDFDUWKLHI¶VULJKWWRSULYDF\LQDVWROHQYHKLFOHDQG
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D SUREDWLRQHU RU SDUROHH ZLWK RU ZLWKRXW D ZDUUDQW RU        LQ ZKLFK WKH\ ZHUH IRXQG  0RUHRYHU LOOHJDOO\ REWDLQHG
SUREDEOHFDXVHZRXOGKDYHPDGHWKHVSHFLDOQHHGVDQDO\VLV             REMHFWVVXFKDVFRQWUDEDQGDUHRIWHQVXSSUHVVHG6HHHJ
RI*ULIILQFRPSOHWHO\XQQHFHVVDU\                                   8QLWHG6WDWHVY6PLWK, 263 F.3d 571 (6th Cir. 2001). The
                                                                       legality of a person’s possession cannot be the lynchpin of
  7KHUHIRUH ZH ORRN WR WKH IDFWV VSHFLILF WR WKLV FDVH LQ   their Fourth Amendment standing. Carnes thus had some
GHWHUPLQLQJZKHWKHU&DUQHVKDGDGLPLQLVKHGH[SHFWDWLRQRI             expectation of privacy in the six tapes seized at 1731 Harmon.
       8QLWHG6WDWHVY&DUQHV                             1R         1R                           8QLWHG6WDWHVY&DUQHV           

  However, with respect to the seventh tape, the one found                       SXUVXDQWWRDUHDVRQDEOHUHJXODWRU\RUDGPLQLVWUDWLYHVFKHPH
under Kellum’s home, Carnes had no expectation of privacy.                       DXWKRUL]LQJ VXFK DFWLRQ WKH SROLFH FRXOG VHDUFK D
                                                                                 SUREDWLRQHU¶V UHVLGHQFH ZLWKRXW D ZDUUDQW LI WKH\ KDG
  Since the decision in Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347                      UHDVRQDEOH FDXVH WR EHOLHYH WKDW D YLRODWLRQ RI D SUREDWLRQ
  (1967), it has been the law that "capacity to claim the                        FRQGLWLRQZDVWDNLQJSODFH6HHLG
  protection of the Fourth Amendment depends . . . upon
  whether the person who claims the protection of the                               At the suppression hearing, the government argued that the
  Amendment has a legitimate expectation of privacy in                           tapes were seized to help establish a violation of the residency
  the invaded place." Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 143                       requirement of Carnes’s parole agreement. See United States
  (1978). A subjective expectation of privacy is legitimate                      v. Carnes, 51 F.Supp.2d 829 (E.D. Mich. 1999). The fact that
  if it is " ‘one that society is prepared to recognize as                       the tapes were not listened to until well after the parole
  "reasonable," ’ " id., at 143-144, n.12, quoting Katz,                         hearing shows that they were not originally seized, nor
  supra, at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).                                        subsequently listened to, pursuant to the special authority
                                                                                 granted the government for supervising parolees. Through all
Minnesota v. Olson, 495 U.S. 91, 95 (1990). Carnes never                         stages of this case, the government has never offered a reason
lived at this house and certainly was not present in it or in                    why it did not listen to the tapes immediately after, or even
possession of the recorder or the tape when Kellum turned                        shortly after, they were seized. To the extent the government
them over to the police. It would be unreasonable for him to                     now offers reasons why the tapes were originally seized, we
claim an expectation of privacy with respect to something that                   cannot entertain them. Where the government claims that
he had no control or dominion over. Therefore, we hold that                      "special needs" of law enforcement justify an otherwise
the district court properly admitted the seventh tape into                       illegal search and seizure, a court must look to the "actual
evidence.                                                                        motivations of individual officers". See United States v.
                                                                                 Knights, 112 S. Ct. 587, 593 (2001); see also Griffin, 483
                                    D.                                           U.S. at 875 (suggesting that special needs searches must be
                                                                                 confined in scope). Here, there is no evidence that the
   The government’s argument, relied upon by the district                        officers who seized the six tapes on January 14, 1997, were
court, that the special needs of law enforcement allowed the                     motivated by a desire to establish a violation of the residency
government to seize and listen to the six tapes seized at 1731                   requirement of Carnes’s parole agreement. Rather, the
Harmon, is unavailing. ,Q*ULIILQY:LVFRQVLQ483 U.S. 868                     government’s failure to listen to the tapes until well after the
(1987), the Supreme Court IRXQG WKDW WKH XQLTXH                              parole hearing suggests some other motivation.
FLUFXPVWDQFHVRISUREDWLRQFUHDWHG³VSHFLDOQHHGVEH\RQGWKH
QRUPDOQHHGIRUODZHQIRUFHPHQW´,GDW7KHUHIRUH                                                          E.
                                                                                    Finally, the government argues that under the totality of the
                                                                                circumstances, Carnes had a diminished expectation of
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                                                                                 privacy such that the usual Fourth Amendment protections
 86 DW  SDUROH ³LV QRW GLUHFWHG E\ WKH FRXUW EXW E\ DQ                  were not applicable to him. For this proposition, the
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